Table 1. Societal, animal and environmental challenges identified by OHHLEP theory of change1
Societal challenges Animal health challenges Environmental challenges
Socioeconomic inequalities Disease emergence and pathogen spillover Climate change and increasing frequency/ severity of extreme weather events
Persisting racial/ethnic/ gender inequalities Changing animal migratory patterns Land use change
Poor understanding of health risks and mitigation measures Poorly regulated wild meat and wildlife trade Ocean acidification
Inequitable access to education and limited knowledge transfer Increasingly complex products/food system and trade Biodiversity loss
Consumption-based economic growth models Poorly regulated live animal/bird transport, markets, and infection, prevention and control (IPC) systems Unsustainable harvest of wild species
Poorly planned urbanization and human population growth Wildlife population declines and species extinction Air pollution/ozone depletion
Increased migration (voluntary and forced) and displacement Illegal and unregulated trade in animal medicines including counterfeit and sub-standard products Non-renewable energy consumption and increased greenhouse gas emissions
Increased volume and complexity of trade and travel Inappropriate use of antimicrobials, pesticides, and insecticides Chemical pollution and contamination including antimicrobial/pesticides residues
Restricted justice and political voice Intensified aquaculture, livestock and wildlife farming systems Horizontal gene transfer causing the spread of resistance genes
Lack of trust in government Unsustainable growth in livestock/poultry populations and density Freshwater loss and depletion and aquatic/ wetland ecosystem degradation
Corruption Poor biosecurity Growing landfill/non- recyclable waste
Inequitable access to medicines and other health technologies Uncontrolled non-native species introduction into new ecosystems Unsustainable agricultural intensification
Inappropriate use of medicines (e.g. antimicrobials) and other health technologies Shrinking wildlife corridors Unrestrained urbanization
Unsafe and overcrowded housing Genetic diversity and breed loss Poor waste and wastewater management
Poor heating/cooling and ventilation for housing Poor conditions and standards of animal welfare and protection Genetic diversity loss
Inadequate WASH [water, sanitation and hygiene] and IPC systems and infrastructure Irresponsible pet ownership and care Extractive industries- related degradation and health impacts
War/conflict Selective breeding of genetic traits that compromise animal health and welfare Limited protected and conserved habitats
Poor health systems and infrastructure Wide disparities in access to effective medical technologies for animal health Primary and secondary forest loss and unrestrained monoculture expansion
Unemployment and poor working conditions Natural and man-made disasters
Ageing populations Soil erosion and arable land loss
Inequitable access to safe and nutritious food Water siltation and salinization
Disruptive, fast-paced technological change (e.g. digital technologies) including artificial intelligence (AI))